Product Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Product Strategy - Essay Example The services offered by ABC cloud service limited include, but are not limited to: JustCloud, Egnyte, HybridCloud, MyPC Backup, Open Drive, Carbonite, Sugarsync, ADrive, ElephantDrive, Xdrive, Openomy, Storegate, Strongspace, Mofile, Flipdrive, GlobalDrive, eSnips, Box, Allmydata, iBackup,iStorage, Mozy, Omnidrive, Online File Storage, Mediamax, Online Storage, Dropbox, SOS Online Backup, Acronis True Image Online, SkyDrive, MediaFire, Google Drive, Microsoft Office 365, Zoho, Rapidshare and SendSpace. The table below provides a product and valuation policy of the company. Each product faces competition in the market, and as such, the valuation and pricing strategy may be different for the different products. Products such as the iBackup face stiff competition in the market. I, therefore, employ the skimming pricing strategy. The main aim is to capture the prestige market by charging substantially higher prices as compared to other competitors’ prices. ABC Company charges $1.5 per Gigabyte (GB) for the iBackup. Mozy has a basic home plan which starts at 50GB. 50GB provides a reasonable amount of space for storing more than six million text documents, one thousand videos and seven thousand five hundred photos. The company avails to home users, two plans to choose from. The product gives a maximum storage capacity of 125GB which is limited to only three computers. The firm, therefore, employs a Price Lining strategy. The users are charged according to the user requirements. For example, a home user who needs 100GB pays a higher amount than the pe rson purchasing a 25GB plan. A 50GB Mozy plan sells for $70 per year while 125GB plans for one computer goes for $120 per year. Mozy suffers direct competition from Carbonite (The Best, Most Affordable Alternatives to Mozy for Unlimited Backups, n.d.). I offer free services for the Box item for personal users with a

The cruel treatment Essay Example for Free

The cruel treatment Essay Miss Havisham, her dream is rather alarming as she wants too seek revenge on all male sex the reason for this is because of the cruel treatment she received from her fian. Since that day she has been wearing the same bridal clothing and has not removed anything out or out of place in her home. She lives her life vicariously through Estella whom she adopted and is used to break every males heart. She invites males from when they are young so slowly there hearts may be broken, eventually her dream also fails as many know about her plans and they tend to ignore her. Well, I thought I overheard Miss Havisham answer- only it seemed so unlikely- Well, you can break his heart.' (Pg. 59) Another instance of foreshadowing, this is the first point in the story when the reader can see Miss Havishams plot with Estella. Further on her plans come to an end as Estella is married to Drummel who is a cold hearted man and now she is beaten and treated the same as his animals as drummel states in the novel also Estella says he whips his horses, in comparison Im spared. Now Estella ends back at Satis house alone just like Miss Havisham, neither the two have succeeded in there dreams. Abel Magwitch, who is at first a gruesome prisoner that escapes on the marshes where he meets pip. for he gave me a look that I did not understand, and it all passed in a moment. But if he had looked at me for an hour, or a day, I could not have remembered his face ever afterwards, as having been more attentive. (Pg. 37) Pip is talking about his convict after the soldiers catch him. This passage is important to the story because it foreshadows all that is to come. Pip could not interpret what the convict felt for him. He was sent down to Australia where he made a fortune by farming but after all that time he still risked his life and came back to England so he can be pips benefactor, because of the favour pip had done him. Pip does not know who his benefactor is as he couldnt even imagine it would be Magwitch. Yes, Pip, dear boy, Ive made a gentleman on you! (Pg. 315) Magwitch tells Pip this the first night he comes to his house. It reveals that Magwitch is his benefactor and this one statement totally changes Pips outlook on his good fortune. His dream comes to an end as he is sophisticated and does not realise that he is a convict, the novel ends where he began it as a convict, no improvements has been made in his life also. All the characters did not go far with there dreams as they too hasty into doing things, firstly pip with all the money he has he squanders it all, Miss Havisham relies on Estella when she is married and beaten and Magwitch who is an escaped convict doesnt realise that pip cannot become a gentleman as Magwitch himself is not a noble person. All three characters inhabit imperfection in their own personalities and are ruined matters beyond their control. Pip tries to become a gentleman when his benefactor is not a nobleman and his origin is a blacksmith, Miss Havisham adopts Estella to take her revenge through Estella and Magwitch is trying to be pips father which he can never be, none realise and are expecting too much of themselves. All characters are linked in this way that they could try to use any means to make there dreams come true but it will not work as somewhere at some point there will be a tun over as they are imperfect in some ways. All their dreams are unreal and because of this they act unusually and behave the way they shouldnt. Their expectations are far too great for them too control over and from this they fail into fulfilling their dreams and aspirations. This novel is a mirror image of dickens and from this he wanted for the middle and upper classes to understand the lifes of the working class people and also children along with the difficulties and hardship they had to go through.

Empathy essay- my life as a slave (capture to the auction) :: essays research papers

MY INTRODUCTION TO SLAVERY We don’t have the same limitations as other people of different tribes do. I am a free woman, or shall I say I was a free woman. I am the wife of our tribes chief –Jankay Boto, that’s where I got my surname, Boto. Before my marriage I was a Touray. My father, or Paupa, was the chief of the tribe Adance. The two tribes, Adance and Denkyira, my husband’s tribe, are in the same village, Juffure. The two tribes have been friends for as long as anyone can remember, I mean they have been friends for since like ever. That’s how I got married into this tribe. As these tribes are very close to each other I can visit my Paupa’s house whenever I want. I, being the daughter of the tribes chief, was allowed to study but up till a certain age and when that age I came I wasn’t willing to stop my studies but my father and my brother wanted me to leave school and help my mom in the rice plantations. However this didn’t satisfy me, so I oppose th is idea up till my male relatives agreed on me having further studies and I did succeed, thanks to my mom. Now I teach to small children in my tribe and they are quite happy with me. My students include my 2 children, Brima and Saloum. I do more of religion there, I teach my students about Islam –my religion. My name is Yaisa Boto, and now you will learn about my life in detail. I had a very respected position in my tribe. People came up to me for consultancy because of my high experience of life. Apart from teaching I also did some house works with my slaves. I did not want to lay a heavy burden on their shoulders, I believed in justice not injustice. My husband and I had a couple of fights involving the slaves; he disagreed on the fact that I had to work with them but I ignored him. I did not want the slaves to do a lot of work. They just cleaned the house prepared the meal and did other such things. My slaves were not treated as slave; they lived in a comfy condition, they were never mistreated. I never saw them as slaves. The only two things that gave them this name, slave, were that they weren’t paid and they didn’t have the right to own property.

Background Of Pulmonary Edema Health And Social Care Essay

Heart failure is a medical status that consequences as the bosom is incapable to provide equal blood flow to convene metabolic necessities or incorporate systemic venous reaching. Harmonizing to Conte and Clinton ( 2012 ) , this widespread province influences over 5 million persons in the United States at an disbursal of $ 10-38 billion yearly. In this paper, we will discourse a type of bosom failure, Pulmonary Edema. Sing its etiology, types, and symptoms, we will besides discourse the methodological analysiss of its intervention.IntroductionPneumonic hydrops is a state of affairs due to ground of excess liquid in the lungs. This sort of liquid collects inside O pokes inside lungs, rendering it difficult to inhale and expire ( Kapoor, 2011 ) . Typically, bosom disease cause pneumonic hydrops. Pneumonic hydrops can be by and large put into cardiogenic and besides non-cardiogenic grounds. Cardiogenic factors behind pneumonic hydropss are a consequence of high force per unit area in the arterias from the lung due to hapless bosom map. Non-cardiogenic pneumonic hydrops could be often brought on by Acute respiratory hurt syndrome ( ARDS ) , Nephritic failure, speedy slope so that you can big heights greater than 10,000 foot, The quickly increasing lung, a great overdose in strong drugs or dolophine hydrochloride, Pain slayers d rug or even chronic big dose use of acetylsalicylic acid, or in unusual cases pneumonic intercalation, transfusion-related ague lung hurt ( TRALI ) , a few infections, or possibly eclampsia in pregnant adult females. Most sick persons with pneumonic hydropss inside internal medical specialty subdivision tend to be elderly, holding ischemic bosom jobs, high blood pressure, diabetes, plus a old history of pneumonic hydrops. The full mortality will be big ( in-hospital, 12 % ) and the forecasters connected with big in-hospital human death are related to staying ventricular myocardial operate. Pneumonic vass generate a great disproportion in the startling force per unit area, finally doing addition in the liquid filtrating into the interstitial, infinites with the bronchial tube that exceeds the lymphatic system capacity to run out the peculiar liquids apart, increasing measures associated with smooth leak into the alveolar room, the peculiar lymphatic system drain pipes excess extracellular fluid measure. In the event the alveolar tissue is damaged, the peculiar liquid builds up in the air sac. Hypoxemia grows if the alveolar tissue bed is thickened merely by merely unstable which affects exchange of air and besides as fluid fills opening and alveolar country, lung following lessenings and air diffusion. The most common symptom of pneumonic hydrops will be breathlessness or possibly shortness of breath. Extra common symptoms can sometimes include easy fatigue, more quickly developing trouble take a breathing than usual holding typical exercising ( dyspnoea in effort ) , s peedy inhaling ( tachypnea ) , giddiness, or weak point.Etiology and Overview:The etiology of pneumonic hydrops is divided into two groups: Cardiogenic: It is defined as pneumonic hydrops because of amplified capillary hydrostatic force per unit area child to prominent pneumonic venous emphasis. It reflects the accumulation of liquid with low-protein substance in the lungs and air sac as a effect of cardiac malfunction. It is caused by high pneumonic capillary hydrostatic force per unit area taking to transudate of liquid into the pneumonic arteria and air sac. Myocardial infarction is the cosmopolitan find in these sick persons following-on in left ventricular malfunction and greater than earlier hydrostatic force per unit area ( Bajwa & A ; Kulshrestha, 2012 ) . Non-Cardiogenic: This is caused by assorted upsets in which factors other than elevated pneumonic capillary force per unit area are responsible for protein and unstable accretion in the air sac. noncardiogenic pneumonic hydrops ( NPE ) , is caused by alterations in permeableness of the pneumonic capillary membrane as a consequence of either a direct or an indirect pathologic abuse. The major grounds of non-cardigenic PE are Drowning, Acute glomerulonephritis, Fluid overload, infections and mismatch during blood transfusion, Neurogenic pulmonary hydrops, anxiousness, Inhalation hurt, allergic effects, grownup respiratory hurt syndrome ( ARDS ) , hurt, inspiration of contaminated air, Hanta virus ( caused by rats holding symptoms likewise flu ) , etc.Statisticss:With a acquiring old population and turning figures of patients digesting terrible myocardial infarcts, there is a lifting figure of patients with pneumonic hydrops. Heart malfunctioning is the most cosmopolitan ground of entre e to infirmary in the Medicare population in America, and more or less a million patients ( 978,000 ) were hospitalized with the designation of pneumonic hydrops in 1998. Other western provinces, for case, Australia and the UK possess a similarly high happening. Authorized researches reveal that 746 per twelvemonth, 62 per month, 14 per hebdomad, and 2 per twenty-four hours deceases are reported due to pneumonic hydrops.Physiology and Pathophysiology:Harmonizing to Plummer and Campagnaro ( 2013 ) , timely diagnosing of pneumonic hydrops is necessary as the state of affairs is finely supervised by get rid ofing the neurogenic activator. A circulatory system of a normal individual maps such that the flow of fluid from pneumonic capillaries to lungs peers remotion of fluid by pneumonic lymphatic and the normal pneumonic capillary force per unit area is about8 mmHg.Signs and symptoms:Pneumonic Edema can be ab initio diagnosed by sing the symptoms such as Dyspnea ( problem in inspiration ) , orthopnea ( concision of take a breathing ) , nervousness or sentiment of at hand fate, frothy-pink or salmon-colored phlegm ( coughed-up affair ) , Cyanosis ( blue dermal province ) , lividness, Diaphoresis ( utmost perspiration ) , trouble to idle horizontal, and reduced prognostic indicants such as Hypoxia ( deficient O in organic structure tissue ) , irregular blood force per unit area, elevated bosom rate, and enlarged pneumonic capillary cuneus force per unit area. Physical test Patients enduring from pneumonic hydrops can show critical marks demoing tachypnea ( province of headlong inspiration ) , tachycardia ( fast bosom rate ) , and hypotension ( irregular low blood force per unit area ) . Integument test can uncover skin lividness and another status of Livedo Reticularis i.e. tegument yellowing, emerging with Markss. Pulmonary test shows untypical puffing sounds with infrequent wheezing and uneven external respiration form with employment of secondary musculuss. Cardiac test exposes Pulsus alternans – a province of discontinuous weak and strong pulsation – which can be an indicant of left ventricular malfunction in Congestive Heart Failure and unnatural busynesss in cardiac stop.Pathophysiology:Pulmonary hydrops grows when the conveyance of fluid from the blood vass to the interstitial spread and in a figure of instances to the alveoli surpass the reaching of fluid to the blood by path of the lymphatic. It is initiated by disagreement in St arling force per unit areas and important hurt to a assortment of components of the alveolar capillary membrane. Besides, the order of unstable exchange and accretion in the lungs and air pouch is disturbed. The pneumonic hydrops is represented upon three separate consecutive stages: Phase 1 – elaboration in conveyance of fluid from blood capillaries to the interstitial spread Phase 2 – lymphatic does non follow fast gait and fluid and colloid start to accumulate Phase 3 – alveolar capillary membrane is improbably slender and explosions immediately, accordingly alveolar flood takes topographic pointTreatment:When measuring the patients, a chest X ray is indispensable in distinguishing between aspiration pneumonitis and pneumonic hydrops ( Udeshi, Pierre, & A ; Cantie, 2010 ) . The end of intervention of patients of pneumonic hydrops is to cut down pneumonic venous and capillary strain, enhance cardiac end product, and correct the cardinal pathological behavior. Offering O is the first measure in therapy sing pneumonic hydrops. You ever obtain O via a face mask or even rhinal cannula aa‚ ¬ † a flexible plastic stuff tubing holding 2 gaps that provide inspiration to both anterior nariss. Preload diminishing drugs lower force per unit area brought on by smooth get downing the bosom and lungs. Morphine ( Astramorph ) may be used to alleviate shortness of breath and besides anxiousness. Afterload reducing agents widen your blood vass and besides take a force per unit area infix off your heartaa‚ ¬a„?s ventricle. Later interventions include drug and O therapy. The procedure of Drug therapy is somewhat complicated as compared to the O intervention. The application of cringle water pills e.g. , torsemide, bumetanide, furosemide renders vasodilation and reduces pneumonic blocking. Besides, supervising metolazone for intervention of Congestive Heart Failure is an of import facet here. Vasodilators provide dilation of vascular arteria, accordingly decreasing the pneumonic vascular force per unit area. Morphine sulphate tends to do venous dilation and Aminophylline is prescribed after the marks of wheezing are seen. Oxygen therapy is comparatively an easy procedure for the intervention of patients of pneumonic hydrops. An unsophisticated technique of Intubation is employed. However, motorized airing may possibly be indispensable, depending on the badness of disease. Other procedures are uninterrupted positive air passage force per unit area PAP – method of respiratory airing chiefly to avoid tracheal cannulation – and bi-level PAP – used when air passage is required with the accretion of force per unit area care. Swan-Ganz catheter – The pneumonic arteria catheter is normally known as Swan-Ganz catheter, may be the incorporation of catheter in a pneumonic arteria. The aim is diagnosing ( assessment and illation ) ; besides utilized to place bosom failure or sepsis, observe therapy, and assess the effects of medicines. The pneumonic arteria catheter permits unswerving, coincident analysis sing force per unit areas indoors right atrium, ventricle, pneumonic arteria, and left atrium.DecisionAs we have already considered the statistics sing the pneumonic hydrops, although it is going common these, yet bar of every disease is possible. The patients who already are enduring from this, shall adhere steadfastly to intervention and comply with the waies given by their doctors, they should do certain that they spend their day-to-day life harmonizing to the physician ‘s advices and reding, such that their state of affairs remains under control. Besides, a healthy individual, to avoid pneumo nic hydrops if follows a tantrum, good balanced repast and continue with an suggested bodyweight harmonizing to his age and tallness, his danger of developing pneumonic hydrops will be a great trade lesser than a individual who does non follow the tips of populating a healthy life.

Wide Awake

Literary devices are often used in pop songs to give off a certain mood or setting. Katy Perry uses repetition, imagery, allusion and alliterations in her song â€Å"Wide Awake† to explain how an event can cause a person to grow or change in perspective. Changing how they see someone or something and change how they feel about things. By using these devices it created a realization and regretful mood and tone to her song. This makes her song personal and emotional which allows many people to relate and therefore sells songs. You will find that majority of stars out there choose deep and meaningful things to sing about to sell more albums. One way she created the mood of her song Wide Awake was by using repetition. In the very beginning she states that she's wide awake, meaning that she has come to realize her mistakes and is seeing things from a different point of view now after the fact. Also she repeats falling from cloud nine throughout the song as well. Falling from cloud nine is a figure of speech saying that she was in love and happy but then she fell out of love (falling from cloud nine) and became heartbroken. Falling from cloud nine isn't necessarily considered a good thing and that's exactly what she was saying. Using repetition to create a mood for the song and to hook the listeners into listening to the story behind of the song. Another way she added meaning to her song was by using Imagery. In almost every song that there is there is some sort of imagery warped into it. Because without some sort of story line or description the song wouldn't be any good or entertaining and people wouldn't want to listen to it. In Katie's song she creates the image of thunder rumbling and castles crumbling. That creates a picture in your head of the actual emotion that she's feeling. Describing her heart break like the cracks and loud booms of thunder during storm, a storm like the break up she's going through. And also describing the same thing with an old castle that's finally worn down and falls apart. Lastly I want to talk about the overall meaning of the song. Throughout the song Katy puts in several literary devices as the ones in the paragraphs above but the entire song itself is just a huge metaphor. In the chorus of her song she says â€Å"Gravity hurts, you made it so sweet till I woke up on the concrete. † Majority of her song revolves around these lyrics. Because she's comparing her break up and her realization of what went wrong to earth's gravity. Which states whatever goes up must come down, just like her love for him whoever he is had to come to an end eventually and that hurts. In the end all songs are made up different combinations of literary deices and descriptions of real life feelings. these were just some examples using the famous Katy Perry's most recent song. Songs are just really long poems that speak the truth about life itself and how can you create a poem without structure? You can't, and that's why we use literary devices to build a structure for our writing.

ACT Aspire Practice Tests Where to Find Free Tests

ACT Aspire Practice Tests Where to Find Free Tests SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Has your school district started using ACT Aspire? Because Aspire only rolled out a few years ago (2014), it's possible you have a lot of questions about what the test will be like. Want to get some practice before you take it for real? We'll give you links to free practice tests for each section of Aspire and explain how to best prepare for the test. What Exactly Is ACT Aspire? The ACT Aspire is a test given each year to students in third through tenth grade. Because Aspire tests Common Core standards, it includes varied questions types (like open response, sorting, and long answer). While its format is fairly distinct from the regular multiple-choice ACT, however, it does test some of the same concepts and skills. (For more information on what exactly is tested on the ACT Aspire, be sure to read this post.) In addition to preparing students for the ACT, Aspire aims to track student growth over time. The yearly score reports can help students see their strengths and weaknesses compared to others at their grade level. Why Are ACT Aspire Practice Tests Hard to Find? There aren't many ACT Aspire prep books available. Image via Angel Franco/The New York Times. A student preparing for the ACT could find dozens, if not hundreds, of practice tests. The ACT itself releases practice tests, tutoring companies write their own, and prep books often contain at least two full-length practice tests. So what about Aspire? Why are there so few practice tests for it? There are many reasons. A big one is the fact that Aspire is so new (it started rolling out in 2014), so there is much less information available about it. Furthermore, Aspire tests different questions for different grade levels. Given that Aspire is offered to students in grades 3-10 (or roughly ages 8-15), it’s hard to put together practice problems for so many potential age groups. Plus, the varied questions types make it harder to write a practice test (as opposed to just putting together a bunch of multiple choice questions). However, the main reason there aren’t many practice tests for ACT Aspire is its purpose. While the ACT is a test that students take independently for college admissions, Aspire is a test that entire school districts take to monitor student progress. In other words, the expectation is that teachers will prepare students for what’s on ACT Aspire. Students are not seen as responsible for preparing on their own like they are for the ACT. Links to ACT Aspire Practice Tests Still, if you want to get some practice for Aspire- or just see what the test is like- there are full practice sections by grade and subject that can be taken online, or printable PDFs with questions for each age group. If you're a student, this is a great way to get introduced to Aspire’s format before you take it for the first time in class; if you're a teacher, this is a great way to introduce your students to the format. To access the online version, go to this website and enter the user name and password for the test section you want to try. You will see different log-in usernames depending on the test section and grade level that you want to access. Each test contains between 24 and 42 sample questions. Unfortunately, the tests do not come with answer keys, so if you're a student, you'll need to work with your teacher to make sure you're getting the right answer; if you're a teacher, you'll need to go through and check your students'answers manually. There are also PDF versions of an older set of practice tests (with answer keys) for all subjects except writing. These practice tests contain a mix of questions divided by grade level, so they won't provide as much targeted practice as the online tests above. Also, note that the answer keys don’t provide answers for open-response questions. English Practice Test English Answer Key Mathematics Practice Test Mathematics Answer Key Reading Practice Test Reading Answer Key Science Practice Test Science Answer Key For example, if you’re giving these printable sample questions to your third-grader, only focus on the last few questions per section- the first questions will stump them! If you’re a high schooler, you can easily take the whole practice test. Middle schoolers can attempt the entire test as well, but be aware the first few questions will likely be very challenging. How Will These Help You Get Ready for ACT Aspire? If you take the practice sections online, you can get used to the format of Aspire (toggling back and forth between questions, inputting answers for the various question types, etc). You can also get a sense of how difficult the questions targeted for your grade level are. If you find the test tricky, you could reach out to your teacher and ask for additional resources to help you prepare If you’re at the high school level, the questions for you are quite similar to the ACT. If you want more practice, it would be appropriate for you to look at ACT practice tests, though be aware the ACT only has multiple-choice questions (excluding the optional essay). Furthermore, the ACT tests more challenging math, up to trigonometry. Why You Shouldn’t Stress About ACT Aspire While working through these practice sets can definitely help you prepare for Aspire, don't assume that burden is on you alone. As we mentioned earlier, Aspire is for school districts to monitor student progress. Your Aspire scores have zero effect on your GPA or your college admissions chances. No colleges require, or even accept, ACT Aspire scores for admission. If you (or your child) has Aspire testing coming up and you feel unprepared, feel free to check out the practice problems above, but also speak to your teacher. Your teacher can explain their plan for preparing the class for Aspire and give some insight as to how the test will be used at your school. Bottom line: unlike with the ACT, it is not a student’s independent responsibility to prepare for the ACT Aspire. What’s Next? Do ACT Aspire scores really predict your ACT score? Read our analysis on the subject here. Do you have a high-achieving middle school student (or are you one)? Read about programs they can do at Duke, Johns Hopkins, and Stanford to further develop their talents. High schoolers, want links to free, official ACT practice tests? We’ve got ‘em! Does it make sense to start preparing for the ACT as a seventh, eighth, or ninth grader? Find out with our exclusive guides. Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Halle Edwards About the Author Halle Edwards graduated from Stanford University with honors. In high school, she earned 99th percentile ACT scores as well as 99th percentile scores on SAT subject tests. She also took nine AP classes, earning a perfect score of 5 on seven AP tests. As a graduate of a large public high school who tackled the college admission process largely on her own, she is passionate about helping high school students from different backgrounds get the knowledge they need to be successful in the college admissions process. 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Earthquakes

Earthquakes Free Online Research Papers On October 17, 1989, as my family and I were preparing to watch game 3 of the World Series, a special news break announced that there had been a devastating earthquake that had struck the San Francisco bay area. News cameras quickly began showing the devastation that this magnitude 6.9 earthquake had wrought. Buildings were on the verge of collapse and the two tier bay bridge had partially collapsed trapping hundreds of motorists. 63 people lost their lives due to the earthquake, 3,500 were injured and over 100,000 buildings were damaged (bbc.co.uk, 2005). Earthquakes are notorious throughout history as devastating phenomena, but what causes them? In order to understand what makes the earth tremble so violently, you have to delve deep under the Earth’s surface. At one time, scientists thought that the earth’s crust or Lithosphere was continuous without any breaks or cracks but in the 1960’s, new research showed that the lithosphere was actually a fluid puzzle of irregular segments, or plates. These plates are made up of cool, solid rock that is four to forty miles thick. These enormous blocks of Earth’s crust vary in size and shape and cut through continents and oceans. There are nine major plates. Six of them are named for the continents they are embedded in: the North American, South American, Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, and the Antarctic. The other three are oceanic plates called the Pacific, Nazca and Cocos plates. These plates are in constant motion and it is along their boundaries that tremendous energy is released changing the earth’s surface. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. Although the plates appear to be moving independently of each other they are connected and a plate cannot move without affecting the other plates. The plates are either pulling apart or coming together. For example as the South American plate pulls away from the African plate, making the Atlantic Ocean larger in a divergent boundary, the pacific sea floor is being consumed in deep subduction trenches or a convergent boundary. The â€Å"Ring of Fire† around the margins of the Pacific Ocean is caused by a convergent boundary or subduction zones found around the edge of the Pacific plate. These are plate margins where one plate is overriding another, thereby forcing the other plate in to the mantle beneath it. All the old oceanic crust is going into these systems as new crust is formed at the spreading centers. In this way the Earth recycles its self. And it is why crust older than the Cretaceous cannot be found in any ocean basin because it has already been destroyed by the process of subduction. Subduction zones are the location of very strong earthquakes, which occur because one plate is overriding the other. The third type of boundary or margin is called a transform boundary because plate material is neither created nor destroyed, rather the plates slide past each other along faults. The San Andreas Fault in California was responsible for the World Series Earthquake, and it occurs as the North American plate and the Pacific plates move past each other. There are many earthquakes along this fault which are caused by the accumulation and the release of the strain as the two plates slide past each other. Faults are surfaces along margins in which rocks have fractured and been displaced. The tectonic stresses caused by plate motions build up over time and eventually cause breaks in the crust of the Earth along which the rocks grind past one another. When this happens, an earthquake occurs. The stresses that are released along these faults are what cause the movement we feel when the Earth trembles during an earthquake. Earthquakes are measured and detected by using seismographs. Inside a seismograph used to measure horizontal motion, a weight is freely suspended. As waves from the earthquakes reach the seismograph the weight stays in the same place, while the ground and support move around it. This movement is recorded on magnetic tape by a pen attached to the weight or mass. In a seismograph designed to measure vertical motion, the weight is connected to a spring, so as the ground and support move up and down, the pen on the weight measures the vertical motion. The metal tape which the motion is recorded on is marked with lines that correspond to one minute intervals. When motion is recorded, a seismogram is created, which tells about the waves, how big they were and how long they lasted. Using information from the seismogram, the epicenter and focus of the earthquake can be determined. The focus is the point on the fault at which the first movement occurred. The epicenter is the point directly ab ove the focus. Waves, or the motion that seismographs pickup are created when stress is released as energy in earthquakes. There are three types of waves. The P wave, or primary way, is the fastest of the three waves and the first detected by seismographs. P waves are able to move through both liquid and solid rock. P waves are compressional waves which mean that they compress and expand matter as they move through it. S waves or secondary waves are the waves that directly follow the P waves. As S waves move they cut the rock they travel through sideways at right angles to the direction of the motion. S waves are the most dangerous type of wave because they are larger than P waves and produce vertical and horizontal motion in the ground surface. Both S and P waves are called body-waves because they move within the Earth’s interior. The speed of these waves varies depending on the density and the elastic properties of the material they pass through, and they are amplified as they reach the su rface. The third type of wave is called the surface wave. This type of wave moves close to or on the surface of the ground. Earthquakes are measured in several ways. Intensity is the measure, in terms of degrees, of damage to the surface and the effects on humans. Intensity records observations of effects on the curst, not actual ground motion or wave amplitudes which can be recorded by instruments. The second type of measurement is called the Magnitude of the earthquake. Magnitude is measured by wave amplitude and distance. Magnitude is determined using mathematical formulae and information from seismograms. The Richter scale is a magnitude scale that is logarithmic, which means each step in magnitude is greater than the last. To determine the Richter magnitude, a seismograph is used. Using a seismogram, the time difference between the recording of the P wave and the S wave is determined and matched to a corresponding distance value. The single maximum amplitude recorded on the seismogram is calculated and a line is drawn between the amplitude scale and the distance scale. The line crosses another scale, which corresponds to the magnitude. A new type of measurement, called GPS, allows scientists to monitor the movement of the Earth’s crust all over the world, between and during earthquakes. From these measurements, maps and models can be created to show how fast and in what direction the crust is moving due to both plate and fault movement. Through using GPS technology, it will be possible in the future to reduce the risk of damage caused by earthquakes. Although scientists have gained a lot of knowledge regarding earthquakes and the other forces that shape our planet, they are still unable to predict impending earthquakes the way they are able to predict other natural disasters such as hurricanes, or tornados. There is still much to learn. Only through research and the development of new technologies, will man finally be able to understand the destructive forces that are churning away beneath our feet. References bbc.co.uk. (2005, October 17). 1989:Earthquake hits San Francisco. Retrieved March 1, 2008, from On This Day: http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/17/newsid_2491000/2491211.stm. Earthquake. (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 1, 2008, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: search.eb.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/eb/article-9106195 Research Papers on EarthquakesHip-Hop is ArtThe Spring and AutumnQuebec and Canada19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XTwilight of the UAWLifes What IfsThe Fifth HorsemanAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Genetic Engineering

The Meaning of Myths, Folklore, Legends and Fairy Tales

The Meaning of Myths, Folklore, Legends and Fairy Tales The terms myth, folklore, legend, and fairy tale are often used interchangeably, leading to the misconception that they mean the same thing: fanciful tales. Although its true that these terms may refer to bodies of writing  that answer some of lifes basic questions or present commentary on morality,  each type presents a distinct reader experience. Theyve all stood the test of time, which speaks volumes about their ongoing hold on our imaginations. Myth A myth is a traditional story that may answer lifes overarching questions, such as  the origins of the world (the creation myth) or of a people. A myth can also be an attempt to explain mysteries, supernatural events, and cultural traditions.  Sometimes sacred in nature, a myth can involve gods or other creatures. It presents reality in dramatic ways. Many cultures have their own versions of common myths that  contain archetypal images and themes. One common myth that spans multiple cultures is that of a great flood. Myth criticism is used to analyze these threads in literature. A prominent name in myth criticism is that of the literary critic, professor, and editor Northrop Frye. Folklore and Folktale Whereas myth has at its core the origins of a people and is often sacred, folklore is a collection of fictional tales about people or animals. Superstitions and unfounded beliefs are important elements in the folklore tradition. Both myths and folklore were originally circulated orally. Folktales describe how the  main character copes with the events of everyday life, and the tale may involve crisis or conflict. These stories may teach people how to cope with life (or dying) and also have themes common among cultures worldwide. The study of folklore is called folkloristics.   Legend A legend is a story thats purported to be historical in nature but that is without substantiation. Prominent examples include King Arthur, Blackbeard,  and Robin Hood. Where evidence of historical figures, such as  King Richard, actually exists, figures such as  King Arthur  are legends due in large part to the many stories that have been created about them. Legend also refers to anything that inspires a body of stories or anything of lasting importance or fame. The story is handed down orally but continues to evolve with time. Much of early literature began as legend told and retold in epic poems that were passed down orally originally, then at some point written down. These include masterpieces such as the Greek Homeric Poems (The Iliad and The Odyssey), circa 800 BCE,  to the French Chanson de Roland, circa  1100 CE. Fairy Tale A fairy tale may involve fairies, giants, dragons, elves, goblins, dwarves, and other fanciful and fantastic forces. Although originally  not written for children, in the most recent century, many old fairy tales have been Disneyfied to be less sinister and to appeal to kids.  These stories have taken on lives of their own. In fact, many classic and contemporary books, such as Cinderella, Beauty and the Beast, and Snow White, are based on fairy tales. But read the original Grimm brothers fairy tales, for example, and youll be surprised at the endings and how they differ from the versions that you may have grown up with.

The impact of scraping of the retirement age on the management of HR Essay - 1

The impact of scraping of the retirement age on the management of HR in Organisations - Essay Example (Age UK, 2010). The decision on this ground shows growing need of service from the Britons to carry on working, only if they are fit and healthy and continue their work. This move of the government was welcomed by personnel groups but the business leaders notified in a form of warning that this measure might leave the employers blank with regards to their planning for future. This is because they would not know about the exact timing of retirement of their employees so that they can prepare the succession plan (Beckford & Peacock, 2010). The following literature review has been prepared to provide empirical evidence of the impact of such policy of the government to scrap the age of retirement. The evidence of this literature review has been collected from different articles and journals basically through secondary sources. According to Cadler (2010), scrapping or removal of the DRA will be one among the biggest alterations to employment law when it would come into being in the year of 2011. The author says that this reform will leave a number of unresolved problems for the employers. This is because the rules regarding this policy will be very unclear to all the employees along with the employers. At the same time, it will be unclear to all the stakeholders of the organisation (Cadler, 2010). Skirbekk (2004) stated that recognizing the profiles of age-productivity, is a significant factor of the economic world at present. The government recognised this factor and thus the issue gained importance. Government focuses on the demographic and economic factors of the country that are changing. Life expectancy is an important demographic indicator of the affect on economic growth of a country. This indicator influences the age structure of an economy. The government took the decision to scrap the retirement age because it is believed that individual productivity rises to its peak level at later stages of working life.

Four Major Infuential Events that Shaped the U.S Essay

Four Major Infuential Events that Shaped the U.S - Essay Example According to the website of history.com tension between the colonizers and the Americans began in 1775 when the British government began to exploit them by imposing too many taxes and harsh policies, the Americans began to complain and so the problem of social unrest started. Every time the British sought expansion of territories, the more the Americans got hurt thru increased taxations. This problem led to the Americans to consider civil disobedience to the unjust laws and to stage an American revolution. The combined strength of the people and courageousness led to the declaration of independence. When they could no longer bear the inconsiderate rule of the British colonizers, Americans started to protest. The solid commitment of the American people in thirteen colonies brought an end to the colonization regime and the beginning of America’s independence. The Significance of the U.S. Constitution The U.S. constitution becomes significant to the foundation and evolution of th e United States today because it gives the legal authority to govern the people of the United States and to establish the basic structure of the government. The basic purpose of the U.S. Constitution is to establish the rights of all American citizens. The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787 and came into effect in 1779. Borade said it is the shortest and oldest constitution in the word. It is significant to the evolution of the United States today because the Constitution instituted a framework of the government that defines the functions and responsibilities of every government branch so the people know what to expect from them, and thus, people are assured that each department does not go beyond its limits. So now, we have the judicial, the executive, and the legislative branch of the government. In the executive branch we have the president, vice president and other cabinet members who are responsible in enforcing the laws of the land. What is relevant here is the dem ocratic process; people have the power and right to elect and put officials who will rule the government. The constitution puts tenure of service to each elected officer. We have a judicial branch where courts are established. The courts interpret the laws and determine how it is applied. The judicial courts provide a check and balance on the legislative and executive branches. Last is the legislative branch where the laws of the land are made. It is composed of senators and congressmen wherein each represents the interest of their respective constituents. The US Constitution is important to us because it defines the civil liberties and rights of the Americans. The Constitution assures that there will be no discrimination and everybody will have equal rights. Specifically, these liberties include freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom to media access, freedom of assembly and freedom of petition. Likewise, the US constitution guarranies rights of the Americans, such as t he right to possess firearms, right to question to arrests and property seizures, without warrant; right to public trial for criminal offenses and the right to question excessive bail and punishment. Because of the constitution government is strengthened and everything is put in proper position.. It has placed the State in general peace and order since

Warren Buffet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Warren Buffet - Essay Example The active management always attempts to select attractive areas of investment. They decide the ripe time to join and enter markets, sectors, and places of leverage in the market. Their point is to make profits, and always aspire to do more than they could be doing. Passive management of investments does not make an attempt to differentiate between unattractive and attractive securities, or keep tabs on the markets. They invest in wide sectors that are called indexes. The aim is also to make profits (Bernstein 2001). But due to the nature of the market they accept average returns. They actually diversify their investments. Active management of shares is quite appealing on paper. But it is substantially costly and surrounded by decreasing returns when compared to passive investment. Given the unpredictability of markets and economies, it is better to diversify the risks rather than put one’s investment in one company or market. Some people can make accurate predictions on investment returns, but this may not always be the case. If the predictions are right, the returns are also abundant. In case of a misjudgment, the losses incurred could be quite severe. The future security prices are equally unpredictable. As a result, it is difficult to predict their future. On the basis of this, a passive investor who spreads the risk is better taken care of. If one can predict rightly, then the returns are always good. The risks and returns are basically correlated. This is the major positive side of active investing. The high potential returns are always risky to venture in. A risk in investment is the potential to lose on the investment. Passive investment spreads the risks by diversifying the investment areas, hence a reduced risk overly. Active management is by a great deal more expensive than passive one. Active investors must incur costs in order to match the

Bank Annual Report Assignment - Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bank Annual Report Assignment - Economics - Essay Example Other mining activities accounted for ASD 0.83 billions forming 0.22% of the total GDP.Thus taking the contribution of mining industries to 32.78 %( Annual 2004). Annual Report of the Central Bank of United Arab Emirates for the year 2004 has the data at Table (2-1) that Manufacturing and Construction Sectors contributed ASD 70.43 billions to 2004 GDP at constant prices of ASD 323.60 billions. In percentage terms this contribution came to 21.76 %( rounded off to 22%). Table(2-2) of the Annual report further shows that Manufacturing and Construction Sectors contributed ASD 78.02 billions to 2004 GDP at current prices of ASD 378.61 billions. In percentage terms this contribution came to 20.61 %( Annual 2004). Table(2-8) ,captioned 'Employees by Economic Sectors' , of the Annual Report of the Central Bank of United Arab Emirates for the year 2004 has the data that UAE had a total of 2.46 million employees in UAE in 2004.Of this 0.27 million were engaged in the Government Sector forming about 10.98% of the total employees. As against this Oil& Gas, and Manufacturing sectors deployed 0.35 million employees which formed about 14.23 % of the total employees (Annual, 2004).Thus more number of employees were deployed in Oil& Gas, and Manufacturing sectors when compared to the Government Sector.

Response to Sundiata Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Response to Sundiata Questions - Essay Example The griot underestimates the ability of humans to realize their good qualities without the guidance of a strong leader. All these generic perceptions affect the audiences’ perceptions along the way. Because of him being the narrator, the audiences look at the story from the griot’s eyes rather than their own eyes, and thus start to believe that whatever presumptions griot has about humans are indeed not quite false. The griot adopts such a language in the epic, that sends the message to the audiences that his sentences are eternal truths. For instance, the griot says, â€Å"God has his mysteries which none can fathom. You, perhaps, will be a king. You can do nothing about it. You, on the other hand, will be unlucky, but you can do nothing about that either. Each man finds his way already marked out for him and he can change nothing of it† (Niane). In these words, the griot tends shapes the minds of the audiences that they can not change their destiny, which many would otherwise not believe. Sundiata has a lot of personal characteristics that make him a great person. The epic provides the audience with an insight into the heroic qualities of Sundiata, of which, his strength is the most prominent. The immense strength of Sundiata can be estimated from the fact that he has very strong arms even when he is a little child who cannot walk on his own because he is crippled. It is not expectable of a crippled child to stand up and not only bend a huge rod into a bow, but also pull a tree out of the earth along with its roots. Sundiata displays immense boldness as he participates in battles. An individual who has spent his childhood with a disability and has been exiled gets his morale lowered, but Sundiata is different. His bravery and strength traditionally make him resemble a rebellious person, but he proves to be the other way round with his nobility and

How does globalisation impact on the management of Chinese firms Essay

How does globalisation impact on the management of Chinese firms - Essay Example The role of globalization in the competitive economic scenario and the environment cannot be underestimated. The firms have to advance themselves with the ever rising challenges in the market and accordingly build up their strategies. It is here the role of globalization plays the prime effect. The foreign policies practiced by China as well as the economic situation across the globe are all factors for a firm to sustain in the market. The focus of the paper will lay upon the needful to be done by the management to be in line with the impacts of globalization. In fact this is the reason behind inclusion of both and negative aspects of globalization. Introduction Globalization and its impact on the management of firms have attracted an effective attention of the international business’ scholars in the past decades. Small family run private owned business organizations have been at the middle of various international discussions on the how the globalization impacts the managemen t of the organizations. Liberalisation of markets, services, standardization and integration of economies are considered as the hallmark of the globalization. Opening of economy and increased interdependence on global market has contributed effectively to the economies of both developing and developed countries. China is considered as one of the emerging economies around the globe. The small family run private owned hospitality firms are achieving significant growth rate due to China’s open economy policy and globalization. On the other hand, it is quite challenging for an organization within this sector to manage the workforce and business performance inside or outside of the country. Recently china achieved potential economic growth rate due to globalization, open door policy and economic reformation. It is true that the business environment in China is becoming highly potential as well as competitive. Several organizations within the small family run private owned hospital ity organizations are adopting different strategies in global market place in order to develop potential client base and gain significant competitive advantages. Despite the financial advantages, the management of these Chinese firms faces several issues in foreign market places due to globalization. Several Chinese small family run private owned hospitality firms are trying to aiming on global expansion strategy. However, globalization has several advantages and disadvantages on the management of these firms that will be discussed in the discussion part. This essay will determine the impact of globalization on the management of small family run private owned hospitality firms outside China. Discussion It s true that globalization and open door policy of China is motivating several small family run private owned hospitality firms to adopt and implement global expansion strategy. These organizations are considered as one of the important contributor of the economic growth of China. C hina is highly focusing on the growth of these business firms due to high potentiality and strong market demand. Therefore, the government of China is supporting these organizations to adopt and implement global expansion strategy. There are several negative and positive consequences of globalization on the management of these firms that are discusses below. Positive Impacts of Globalization Several leading organizations are trying to capitalize on the opportunities that are developed due to

Response to Sundiata Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Response to Sundiata Questions - Essay Example The griot underestimates the ability of humans to realize their good qualities without the guidance of a strong leader. All these generic perceptions affect the audiences’ perceptions along the way. Because of him being the narrator, the audiences look at the story from the griot’s eyes rather than their own eyes, and thus start to believe that whatever presumptions griot has about humans are indeed not quite false. The griot adopts such a language in the epic, that sends the message to the audiences that his sentences are eternal truths. For instance, the griot says, â€Å"God has his mysteries which none can fathom. You, perhaps, will be a king. You can do nothing about it. You, on the other hand, will be unlucky, but you can do nothing about that either. Each man finds his way already marked out for him and he can change nothing of it† (Niane). In these words, the griot tends shapes the minds of the audiences that they can not change their destiny, which many would otherwise not believe. Sundiata has a lot of personal characteristics that make him a great person. The epic provides the audience with an insight into the heroic qualities of Sundiata, of which, his strength is the most prominent. The immense strength of Sundiata can be estimated from the fact that he has very strong arms even when he is a little child who cannot walk on his own because he is crippled. It is not expectable of a crippled child to stand up and not only bend a huge rod into a bow, but also pull a tree out of the earth along with its roots. Sundiata displays immense boldness as he participates in battles. An individual who has spent his childhood with a disability and has been exiled gets his morale lowered, but Sundiata is different. His bravery and strength traditionally make him resemble a rebellious person, but he proves to be the other way round with his nobility and

A Chat with Jesus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

A Chat with Jesus - Essay Example The high price of such experience shows the value found in wisdom, a treasure more valuable than gold and diamonds. As there are rare people who truly have the wisdom that promotes prosperity not only in the financial aspect of a person’s life but includes philosophical, psychological, emotional and spiritual prosperity; it is indeed important to consider the people a person deals with. If given the chance to speak with one person for twenty four hours, the choice would definitely the man who was crucified because of his claim that He is the Son of God. There are many courageous people who would claim what or who they are but probably would never dare to say that they the sons God. Being a prominent figure in the generation He lived with, Jesus never sought to be famous instead, he eluded political power which could have been easily his with the help of his supporters and the Jews who were unfairly treated by the Roman government. In a world where fame and fortune are importan t, it would be wisest to hear from one who has looked to better things rather than what is seen in the present. In addition, it would be a great advantage for a person to get himself involved in the spiritual discussions of a master, a teacher who knows about the centuries-old questions about life after death. The very reason why Jesus Christ was crucified was because of His claim of being the Son of God which, to the Pharisees’ and Sadducees’ point of view, was a means of equating one’s self with the Creator of man, God. This was considered blasphemous, for a man to consider Himself equal with God, yet Jesus with all the courage He could muster and despite the knowledge of what disaster awaits Him, Jesus still declared Himself to be the man He claimed to be, the Son of the Living God, enraging the teachers of the law and endangering His life. One of the things people look up to these days, is the courage and boldness a person has in presenting himself, to be hi ghly applauded and well-considered. If indeed this is a need that is to be met in this generation for a person to be able to be competitive and successful, then listening to the advice of a person who had all the confidence in declaring himself to be the Son of God, would be a great help. Many scholars study about confidence building as they see it important in a person’s life and probably, for a person to be able to survive in a world like ours, one has to have the attitude of being sure of one’s self. Of course, not everyone is equipped with such confidence for even other great philosophers and prophets had their own slice of uncertainties. For Jesus, He was so sure of Himself that even if it meant death to Him, he still stood for what he believed in, for which, on another perspective, would be considered honorable and making him highly distinguishable. Fame and fortune are one of the things modern people chase but with Jesus, having all the abilities and capabilitie s, he chose to live a simple life, out of the limelight despite the good things He did. Surely, there is something more important in life than the aforementioned essentials of modern living. Getting an education about the matter would be a great experience with the teacher who could have the best reasons why He chose not to get himself involved in politics and other forms where he could acquire wealth. Reading books could inform me in years and probably provide me with all the information needed but authors may be misconstrued and readers forget. As mentioned earlier, speaking with a wise man face to face is far better than just

Software Reuse Essay Example for Free

Software Reuse Essay Abstract Effective reuse of software products is reportedly increasing productivity, saving time, and reducing cost of software development. Historically, software reuse focused on repackaging and reapplying of code modules, data structures or entire applications in the new software projects (Prieto-Diaz 1994). Recently, however, it has been acknowledgedas beneficial to redeploy software components across the entire development life-cycle, starting with domain modelling and requirements specification, through software design, coding and testing, to maintenance and operation. There were also attempts to reuse aspects of project organisation and methodology, development processes, and communication structures. However, as the concept of reusing software components is very clear at the code level (whether in source or binary form), the very same concept becomes more fuzzy and difficult to grasp when discussed in the context of reusing specifications and designs (whether in textual or diagrammatical form), or quite incomprehensible when applied to software informal requirements, domain knowledge or human skills and expertise (expressed in natural language, knowledge representation formalism, or existing only in humans). This problem of dealing with reusable software artefacts resulting from the earliest stages of software development, in particular requirements specifications, attracted our particular interest in the reusability technology. Our work is motivated primarily by the possibility of improving the process of requirements elicitation by methodical reuse of software specifications and their components with the aid of information extracted from user informal requirements documents. The problems and issues that we aim to investigate in this research are best illustrated by the following statement outlining current needs and the goals for the future research in requirements reuse: †¢ More research is needed on the advantages and the necessary methods for requirements reuse. For example, what are requirements components’, what makes them reusable, how can we store and retrieve them, and how do we write a requirements specification that gives us the highest probability of creating or reusing existing requirements components? (Hsia, Davis et al. 1993). Definitions To address the issues advanced by Hsia, Davis and Kung, and to avoid any confusion farther in this paper, we need to clearly define some major concepts of software reuse, reusability, reusable artefacts, their possible forms, reusability methods, their major motivators and inhibitors, etc. Hence, we adopt our definitions from Prieto-Diaz (Prieto-Diaz 1989) as follows :-†¢ reuse is the use of previously acquired concepts or objects in a new situation, it involves encoding development information at different levels of abstraction, storing this representation for future reference, matching of new and old situations, duplication of already developed objects and actions, and their adaptation to suit new requirements; †¢ reuse is the use of previously acquired concepts or objects in a new situation, it involves encoding development information at different levels of abstraction, storing his representation for future reference, matching of new and old situations, duplication of already developed objects and actions, and their adaptation to suit new requirements; †¢ reusability is a measure of the ease with which one can use those previous concepts or objects in the new situations. Reuse Artefacts The object of reusability, reusable artefact , can be any information which a developer may need in the process of creating software (Freeman 1983), this includes any of the following software components :- †¢ code fragments, which come in a form of source code, PDL, or various charts; †¢ logical program structures , such as modules, interfaces, or data structures; †¢ functional structures , e.g. specifications of functions and their collections; †¢ domain knowledge , i.e. scientific laws, models of knowledge domains; †¢ knowledge of development process , in a form of life-cycle models; †¢ environment-level information, e.g. experiential data or users feedback; †¢ artefact transformation during development process (Basili 1990); etc. A controlled collection of reuse artefacts constitutes a reuse library. Such libraries must contain not only reusable components but are also expected to provide certain types of services to their users (Wegner 1989), e.g. storage, searching, inspecting and retrieval of artefacts from different application domains, and of varying granularity and abstraction, loading, linking and invoking of stored artefacts, specifying artefact relationships, etc. The major problems in the utilisation of such reuse libraries are in determining appropriate artefact classification schemes and in the selection of methods to effectively and efficiently search the library. To bypass the problems with reuse libraries, the use of specialised domain-specific languages was proposed as an alternative. Such languages use strict syntax and semantics defined in terms of an application domain and its reusable artefacts. While enforcing notational conformance with a predetermined syntax and semantics, the domain-specific languages restrict the number of possible classification and search mechanisms used in the process of composing a problem solution, e.g. as in DRACO (Neighbors 1989) or GIST (Feather 1989). Artefact Characteristics Certain classes of software artefacts have been identified as eminently suitable to become part of a reuse library and be, subsequently, utilised as reusable software resources. Such artefacts usually share a number of characteristics, deemed to actively promote reusability (Biggerstaff and Richter 1989; Matsumoto 1989; McClure 1989), those artefact are perceived to be :-†¢ expressive, i.e. they are of general utility and of adequate level of abstraction, so that they could be used in many different contexts, and be applicable to variety of problem areas; †¢ definite, i.e. they are constructed and documented with a clarity of purpose, their capabilities and limitations are easily identifiable, interfaces, required resources, external dependencies and operational environments are specified, and all other requirements are explicit and well defined; †¢ transferable , i.e. it is possible to easily transfer an artefact to a different environment or problem domain, this usually means that it is self-contained, with few dependencies on implementation-related concepts, it is abstract and well parametrised; †¢ additive, i.e. it should be possible to seamlessly compose existing artefacts into new products or other reusable components, without the need for massive software modifications or causing adverse side effects; †¢ formal , reusable artefacts should, at least at some level of abstraction, be described using a formal or semi-formal notation, such an approach provides means to formally verify an artefact correctness, it enables to predict violation of integrity constraints during artefact composition, or to assess the level of completeness for a product constructed of reusable parts; †¢ machine representable, those of the artefacts which can be described in terms of computationally determined attribute values, which can easily be decomposed into machine representable parts, which can be accessed, analysed, manipulated and possibly modified by computer-based processes, have a clear potential for becoming part of a flexible reuse library; those artefacts can be easily searched for, retrieved, interpreted, altered and finally integrated into larger system; †¢ self-contained , reusable artefacts which embody a single idea are easier to understand, they have less dependencies on external factors, whether environmental or implementational, they have interfaces which are simple to use, they are easier to extend, adapt and maintain; †¢ language independent, no implementation language details should be embedded in reusable artefacts, this also means that most useable artefacts are those which are described in terms of a specification or design formalism, or those low level solutions which could be used from variety of programming languages on a given implementation platform, either by appropriate macro processors or link editors; †¢ able to represent data and procedures , i.e. reusable artefacts should be able to encapsulate both their data structures and logic, down to a fine grain of detail, such an approach increases artefact cohesion and reduces the possibility of artefact coupling by common data passed via arguments or global variables; †¢ verifiable , as any other software components, reusable artefacts should be easy to test by their maintainers, and, what is even of a greater importance, by their users who embed reusable components into their own systems, and who must have the capability to monitor the components computational context and their interfaces; †¢ simple , minimum and explicit artefact interfaces will encourage developers to use artefacts, simple and easy to understand artefacts can also be easily modified by developers to suit new applications; and †¢ easily changeable, certain type of problems will require artefacts to be adopted to the new specifications, such changes should be localised to the artefact and require minimum of side effects. Reuse in Software Life-Cycle Computer software can be systematically reused across the entire development life-cycle, i.e. domain analysis, requirements specification, design and implementation, it has its place even in the post-delivery stages of development, e.g. its continuing quality assessment or software maintenance. Implementation. Early experience with software reuse was limited to reuse of program code in source and binary form. A great emphasis was put on development of programming languages which could support various methods of clustering, packaging, modularisation, parametrisation and sharing of data and code via data types and code blocks (ALGOL), named common blocks (FORTRAN), parametric functions and macros (FORTRAN and LISP), copy libraries (COBOL), information hiding (PASCAL), modules (SIMULA and MODULA), generic packages (ADA), objects and classes (SMALLTALK and C++), etc. The idea of code sharing was further supported by various operating system utilities which allowed independent program compilation, creation of relocatable libraries or link editing (Reed 1983). In those early days, no serious effort on a commercial scale was undertaken to reuse the early life-cycle artefacts, i.e. designs, specifications, requirements or enterprise models. This situation was caused by :- †¢ the lack of awareness of potential benefits that could be gained from reusing more abstract software artefacts; †¢ unavailability of commercial methodologies embracing software reuse at their centre-point; †¢ informal nature of early specification and design documents; and †¢ shortage of tools capable to represent specifications and designs in a computer-processable form. At the same time, †¢ the construction of libraries was known to improve software development productivity, and was practiced in nearly every commercial organisation; †¢ program code was written according to a formal grammar and it adhered to established semantic rules; and †¢ the construction of code libraries was supported by editors, compilers, loaders and linkers, which could be freely customised to accommodate various reuse tasks. Design. Today’s development approaches, such as object-oriented methods (Graham 1994) or rapid application development (Martin 1991), vigorously advocate reusing software artefacts at the earliest possible stage of the software life-cycle. Program design methods are now capable of utilising well-defined diagrammatic notations, which allow production of documents which are simpler and more legible than code, which clearly exhibit their conceptual contents, which are well structured and modular, and which allow dealing with problem complexity at various levels of abstraction and granularity. With the advent of CASE tools (McClure 1989) the contemporary design techniques are also supported by specialised software environments capable of capturing design ideas in a form leaning towards further processing by computer-based reuse tools. Today, it is also commonly perceived that reuse of software designs, as opposed to code reuse, is more economic, and cognitively a much more intuiti ve process. Requirements Specification. While application of reuse techniques to software design has visible advantages over code reuse, some researchers (Matsumoto 1989) claim further increases in the scope of software reusability when given opportunity to reuse modules at higher levels of abstraction, i.e. software specifications and requirements. Others support this claim, voicing the need to reuse large-scale artefacts going beyond design components and including entire design frameworks and domain resources (Li 1993). Bubenko et. al. (Bubenko, Rolland et al. 1994) further propose to combine design and reuse libraries to accommodate development processes capable of reusing conceptual schemas to support the process of requirements engineering. Such an approach provides users with the library of reusable components that could match their requirements, improves the quality of requirements specifications by making available well-defined conceptual components as early as requirements specification, and improves the productivity of the requirements engineering process by shortening the requirements formalisation effort (Castano and De Antonellis 1994). In the REBOOT system, Morel and Faget (Morel and Faget 1993) aim at extending this approach to the entire software life-cycle. Such advances in requirements and specification reuse were in part facilitated by :- †¢ Development of the new types of programming languages, such as PROLOG or EIFFEL, which combine elements of program specification and design (via logic and class specification) at the level of code, such an approach promotes interpretation and reuse of abstract program descriptions throughout the life-cycle; †¢ dissemination of prototyping tools and visual programming environments capable of graphic representation of user requirements and the subsequent generation of code or code skeletons (Vonk 1989; Ambler and Burnett 1990), facilitating effective composition of programs of domain-specific, visual, reuse components; †¢ introduction of formal requirements and specification languages, such as RML (Greenspan, Mylopoulos et al. 1994), Z (Spivey 1989), VDM (Woodman and Heal 1993) or LARCH (Guttag and Horning 1993), permitting representation, structuring, verification, and reuse of specification components; †¢ object-oriented technologies integrating various diagrammatic techniques into a single methodology, e.g. Information Engineering (Martin 1993), or unifying elements of conceptual modelling, program specification and design into one consistent notation, e.g. Object-Oriented Conceptual Modelling (Dillon and Tan 1993), such object-oriented development methods allow creation of abstract conceptual schemata which can be readily adapted by instantiation and inheritance to new problem solutions; †¢ development of full-text databases utilising efficient information retrieval methods (Salton 1989), being introduced as a repository for storing, classification and subsequent retrieval of design and specification texts (Frakes and Nejmeh 1988; Maarek, Berry et al. 1991; Fugini and Faustle 1993); and finally †¢ application of knowledge-based techniques and intelligent software development assistants in requirements acquisition and specification (Lowry and Duran 1989); Domain Analysis. The final frontier for software reuse in the development life-cycle is a thorough analysis of a given problem domain. This approach is grounded on the belief that in a real-life situation reusability is not a universal property of program code or processed information but it rather depends on a context of the problem and its solution, which themselves are relatively cohesive and stable (Arango and Prieto-Diaz 1991). The main aim of domain analysis is the construction of a domain model of which components could be reused in solving variety of problems. Such a model will customarily include definition of concepts used in the specification of problems and software systems, definition of typical design decisions, alternatives, trade-offs and justifications, and software implementation plans. Such a model may take variety of different forms, to include (cf. Figure 1) :- †¢ definitional model, which provides knowledge taxonomies and actonomies describing domain concepts, their structure, semantics, and relationships between them; †¢ knowledge representation model, giving domain semantics and explanation facilities; †¢ domain-specific languages , which when expressed as formal grammars and supported by parsers may provide direct translation of specifications into executable code; †¢ instructional models , indicating the methods of constructing working systems in a given domain, such methods may be described by standards, guidelines, templates, or interface definitions; †¢ functional models, describing how systems work, using representations such as data flow diagrams or program description languages; †¢ structural models, provide means to define architecture of domain systems; etc. In the process of constructing a domain model, the common knowledge from related systems is generalised, objects and operations common to all systems in a given domain are identified, and a model is defined to describe their inter-relationships. The main problem with this process is that knowledge sources for domain modelling (as found in technical literature, existing implementations, customer surveys, expert advice or current and future requirements) are frequently verbose and informal. Thus, special techniques and tools are needed to deal with it, e.g. knowledge acquisition tools, entity-relationship modelling tools, object-oriented methods, semantic clustering tools, CASE and parsing tools (Agresti and McGarry 1988). Reuse Process. In this work, we will view the process of software reuse as comprising three stages of artefact processing (cf. Figure 2), i.e. their analysis, organisation and synthesis. †¢ Artefact analysis starts with identification of artefacts in existing software products (Ning, Engberts et al. 1994) or in a currently analysed domain (Arango and Prieto-Diaz 1991), this is followed by their understanding and representation in a suitable formalism to reflect their function and semantics, with possible generalisation to widen the scope of their future applications. †¢ Artefact organisation includes classification and storage of artefacts in an appropriate software repository, the subsequent repository search and artefacts retrieval whenever they are needed in the reuse process. †¢ Artefact synthesis consists of artefact selection from a number of retrieved candidate artefacts, their adaptation to suit the new application, and their integration into a completely new software product. The tasks undertaken in the three stages of artefact processing are also frequently discussed from the perspective of development-for-reuse and development-by-reuse (Bubenko, Rolland et al. 1994). †¢ Development-for-reuse is emphasising the construction of the reuse library, involving the identification, understanding , generalisation , and the subsequent classification and storage of artefacts for later reuse. †¢ Development-by-reuse is concerned with the effective utilisation of the reuse library to support new software development, it involves searching, retrieval , selection , adaptation, and integration of artefacts into the software system under construction. As reuse is quite independent of any particular development process model, it, thus, could be embedded into a variety of methodologies, to include waterfall model (Hall and Boldyreff 1991), rapid prototyping (Martin 1991), object-oriented design (Meyer 1987),etc. While the inclusion of reuse into a development cycle is of a significant benefit to the entire process, at the same time it may complicate the development process (e.g. see Figure 3). Also, reuse tasks may significantly overlap with those performed in other development phases, e.g. software integration or maintenance. The separation of concerns lead some researchers (Hall and Boldyreff 1991) into pointing out that reuse must occur across different projects or problem areas, as opposed to those tasks which aim at the change, improvement or refinement of software undertaken within a single project which should not be regarded as reuse, e.g. †¢ software porting , which only aims at adopting existing software product to different hardware or operating system environments; †¢ software maintenance , which strives to correct software erroneous behaviour or to alter the existing program to suit changing requirements; and †¢ software reconfiguration, which provides a method of customising software to be used with different hardware components or making only a subset of its facilities available to the user. Assessing the Reuse Process and its Goals The value of software reuse cannot be gauged in simple, unambiguous, congruous and canonical fashion. One of the reasons for this difficulty lies in the fact that there is a variety of reusable artefact types and the methods and techniques for their creation, manipulation and maintenance. Another reason can be set in inadequacy of measuring tools to assess the reuse benefit or its hindrance, as it can be measured using variety of incompatible metrics, some of which are based on economic, some on technical, then again others on social or cognitive principles. Finally, it is the numerous software stakeholders who are not likely to agree on the common goals of the reuse process itself, as they will all have distinct and opposing development goals. The contention on thee success or failure of reuse approaches is best reflected in the myths, biases and preconceptions of software developers and management, this section will, thus, summarise such opinions as they are reported in the software engineering literature. Reuse benefits. Adopting reuse-based software development process attracts a number of well recognised economic and psychological benefits to both the end-users and developers (Tracz 1988b; Hemmann 1992). These include the following. †¢ Savings in costs and time. As a developer uses already pre-defined components, hence, the activities associated with components specification, design and implementation are now replaced with finding components, their adaptation to suit new requirements, and their integration. Experience shows (also from other fields, like electronic engineering) that the latter set of activities takes less times and therefore costs less. It should be noted, though, that development of components for reuse will certainly attract additional effort, time and cost. This costs, however, can be offset by savings in a number of different software projects. †¢ Increase in productivity. A set of reusable artefacts can frequently be viewed as a high-level language of concepts drawn from a given problem domain. Hence, a developer is given an opportunity to work with more abstract notions related directly to the problem at hand and to ignore low-level, implementation details. It has been shown that working at a higher level of abstraction leads to an increase in development productivity. †¢ Increase in reliability. Reuse library can be viewed as a software product itself, therefore, its development follows a normal cycle of requirements specification, design, implementation, testing, documentation and maintenance. By the very assumption, the user base and a life-span of reuse artefacts is much greater than that of any individual product, thus, the reliability of such artefact is also increased. This also leads to an improved reliability of systems built of reusable components rather than of those built entirely from scratch. †¢ Increase in ease of maintenance. Systems constructed of reusable parts are usually simpler, smaller, and more abstract. Their design is closer to the problem domain and their reliability is greater. This of course has an very positive impact on the quality of such systems maintenance. †¢ Improvement in documentation and testing. Reusable components are normally accompanied by high quality documentation and by previously developed tests plans and cases. Whenever a new system is created by simple selection and altering of such components, then, their documentation and tests will have to be much easier to develop as well. †¢ High speed and low cost replacement of aging systems. As the reuse-based systems share a very large collection of program logic via the reuse library, thus, they are significantly less complex and much smaller in size than those developed from scratch. Such systems will therefore need less effort during porting or adaptation to new hardware and software environments. It should also be noted that it would normally be the reusable components of the system that is technology intensive, and thus, very expensive to develop, e.g. graphical user interfaces, databases, communications, device control, etc. Sharing that cost across several systems would certainly reduce it when a global replacement of computing resources is called for. Reuse drawbacks. At the same time, in practice, radical gains in productivity and quality cannot be achieved due to some preconceptions held by developers and their management (Tracz 1988b; Hemmann 1992). The claims commonly put forward by programmers include :- †¢ reusing code, as compared with development of entirely new systems, is boring; †¢ locally developed code is better than that developed elsewhere (NIH factor); †¢ it is easier to rewrite complex programs from scratch rather than to maintain it; †¢ there are no tools to assist programmers in finding reusable artefacts; †¢ in majority of cases, developed programs are too specialised for reuse; †¢ adopted software development methodology does not support software reuse; †¢ reuse is often ad-hoc and is unplanned; †¢ there is no formal training in reusing code and designs effectively; †¢ useful reusable artefacts are not supported on the preferred development platform; †¢ the reuse process is too slow; †¢ interfaces of reusable artefacts are too awkward to use; †¢ code with reusable components is often too big or too inefficient; †¢ programs built of reusable components are not readily transportable; †¢ reusable components do not conform to adopted standards; †¢ reuse techniques do not scale up to large software projects; †¢ there are no incentives to reuse software. Meanwhile, management also raises objections based on the following arguments :- †¢ it takes too much effort and time to introduce reuse in workplace; †¢ perceived productivity gains will result in cuts to the project man-power; †¢ customers may expect reusable artefacts to be delivered with their product; †¢ it may be difficult to prevent plagiarism of reusable artefacts; †¢ reuse of code may lead to legal responsibility in case of software failure; †¢ the cost of maintaining reusable libraries is prohibitive; †¢ management is not trained in software development methods with reuse; †¢ there is no coordination between software project partners to introduce reuse. Such problems of perception often result from irrational, nevertheless, deeply rooted myths about reusability and the reuse process. A selection of such myths (cf. Table 1) were reported and subsequently demistified by Tracz (1988a). Reuse motivators. While the common prejudice, miconceptions and outright myths among developers and management prevent companies to effectively introduce reuse into their mainstream development, Frakes and Fox (1995) show in their survey that only few factors listed above have any real impact on the success or failure of software reuse, i.e. †¢ the type of application domain althought the reasons for this phenomenon are not known, it seems that certain types of industries show significantly higher levels of reuse (e.g. telecommunication companies) in certain areas of the life-cycle than others (e.g. aerospace industries); †¢ perceived economic feasibility in those organisations where management convinced its software developers that reuse is desirable and economically viable had a much higher success in the introduction of reuse into those organisations; †¢ high quality and functional relevance of reuse assets increases the likelihood of the assets to be reused; †¢ common software process although developers themselves do not regard a common software process as promoting reuse, there is a strong correlation between the gains in the process maturity and the gains in the level of software reuse; and finally, †¢ reuse education education about reuse, both in school and at work, improves reuse and is a necessary part of a reuse program, however, since the issues of software reuse are rarely discussed in the academic curriculum, it is necessary for management to bear the responsibility to provide reuse-specific training to its employees. The same study also showed that other factors, widely perceived as reuse motivators or inhibitors, have only a minimal effect on the reuse process, e.g. †¢ use of specific programming languages and paradigms it is often perceived that structured, modular, object-oriented, or high-level languages improve the prospects of successful software reuse, the collected statistics, however, show no such correlation; †¢ utilisation of software support environments and CASE although development tools are frequently marketted as greatly enhancing software reusability, some studies show that the current employed CASE tools are not particularly effective in promoting reuse of life-cycle objects across projects in an organisation; †¢ employment of staff experienced in software engineering it seems to be evident that experienced software development practitioners are potentially better reusers than those who have no formal training in software engineering, however contrary to this belief, it can be shown that experience and knowledge of software development principles is not a substitute for training in methods and techniques specific to reuse activities; †¢ provision of recognition rewards as an incentive to promote reuse practices in the organisation it is likely that only monetary rewards are a more effective motivator for implementing reuse practices; †¢ existence of perceived legal impediments to the utilisation of reusable software as majority of reuse efforts concentrates on the in-house development of reusable artefacts, thus, the legal issues are of less concern; †¢ existence of reuse repositories many organisations consider such repositories as central to their reuse efforts, practice, however, shows that those organisations which do not use sophisticated computer-aided tools assisting the classification and retrieval of software artefacts achieve similar levels of reuse as those who are active proponents and users of such automated repositories; †¢ the size of an organisation conducting a software development project the project or development team size is often used as an argument against the introduction of a formal reuse process, small companies believe the narrow scope of their application domain will limit the potential benefit of reuse, while the big companies fear the necessary investment of resources and money to properly implement systematic reuse, the apprehension in both of these cases in unwarranted and the likelyhood of a success or failure of reuse efforts is independent of the company or project size; †¢ considerations of software and process quality majority of surveyed developers had generally positive experience in reusing various software assets developed outside their home companies, overall, the quality concerns had little impact on the level of software reuse, the situation would probably be very different if the quality of reused assets were to deteriorate; †¢ reuse measurements in majority of companies measurement of reuse levels, software quality, and software productivity are not done, however, those organisation which measure software reusability are not getting any significant higher reuse levels than those which fail to monitor their successes or failures in reusing software artefacts, thus in practice, measuring software reuse has very little effect on the whole of the reuse process. Finally, Krueger (1989) provides four tenets of the successful software reuse, the tenets based on the technical and cognitive factors which he believes will ultimately translate into variety of development goals to achieve an effective policy on software reusability, i.e. †¢ reuse must reduce the cognitive effort of software development; †¢ constructing systems of reusable components must be easier than to building them from scratch; †¢ finding reusable artefacts must be more efficient than building them; †¢ understanding artefacts is fundamental to their effective selection. Summary This paper defined the concepts of software reuse, reusability, reuse artefact and reuse library. It listed those attributes of software artefacts which increase a chance of them being reused, e.g. they have to be expressive, definite, transferable, additive, formal, machine representable, self-contained, language independent, able to represent data and procedures, verifiable, simple, and easily changeable. Then the paper gave an overview of major reuse efforts in the life-cycle, starting with coding and design, and then going through specification and requirements capture, and finally covering domain analysis and modelling. Two forms of reuse-based development were discussed, i.e. development-for-reuse, aiming at the construction of reuse library, and consisting of artefact identification, generalisation, classification and storage; and the second, development-by-reuse, aiming at the construction of a new software product with the use of reuse library, and including the tasks of searching for reusable artefacts, their understanding, adaptation to new requirements, and their integration into a new system. The stages of artefacts processing include their analysis, organisation and synthesis. Finally the paper analyses the benefits and the perceived disadvantages of software reusability, focusing in particular on the myths and misconceptions held by developers and their managers. Four preconditions for reusability success were given as reduction in cognitive complexity, ease of implementation, ability to understanding of artefact structure and function, and finally, economy of reuse. 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